Saturday 29 April 2017

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London Blitz Begins (1940)

On September 7, 1940 Germany begins its campaign of Blitzkrieg on London and its civilians. Nights after nights, German soldiers dropped high explosives and fireballs on civilians in what happen to be the worst civilian tragedy of UK. There were major aerial raids (attacks in which more than 100 tonnes of high explosives were dropped) on 16 British cities. Over a period of 267 days (almost 37 weeks), London was attacked 71 times.
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Abdication of the Tsar Nikolas ii

On March 15, 1917 following the Feburary Revolution, the Russian Tsar Nicholas abdicated, heralding the end of the Russian imperial empire. His reign saw Imperial Russia go from being one of the foremost great powers of the world to economic and military collapse. Enemies nicknamed him Nicholas the Bloody. Later he and his family were brutally murdered by the Bolsheviks on the night of July 16/17 1918.

 The former tsar Nicholas II and his children sitting on the roof of a greenhouse during their captivity in Tobolsk.

Friday 28 April 2017

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Queen Victoria's Funeral (1901)

Crowds line up to bid a final farewell to Queen Victoria. After 63 years on the throne, Victoria died at the age of 81 at Osborne House on The Isle of Wight. Her military state funeral was held on Saturday 2 February 1901 in St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. She was the longest reigning British monarch in history.

Thursday 13 April 2017

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Will Europe Really Unite?

IF YOU find it hard to believe that Europe is serious about unification, you need only cross a few of its internal borders. People now move freely within the European Union (EU). Waiting time at border crossings has virtually disappeared. Travelers, of course, are delighted—but they are not the only ones to benefit. Now citizens of EU countries can easily study, work, and set up businesses anywhere within the EU. This, in turn, has led to economic progress in the poorer areas of the Union.
The ease of crossing borders is certainly a major change. Should we conclude, though, that Europe is already unified and that there are no roadblocks to unification? On the contrary, obstacles loom ahead, some of them quite daunting. But before we discuss these, let us look into one of the greatest strides toward unity that has been made so far. In that way we may better understand why people entertain so much hope for unity.
Steps Toward Monetary Unification
Maintaining borders can be expensive. Customs formalities among the 15 member countries of the EU once cost those nations some 12 billion euros a year. Not surprisingly, the new situation at Europe’s borders has spurred economic growth. When you think of the 370 million inhabitants of the EU moving freely from country to country within a single common market, it is clear that the economic potential is outstanding. What made such progress possible?
Back in February 1992, government leaders took a big step on the road toward unity by signing the Treaty on European Union, or the Maastricht Treaty. That treaty laid the basis for establishing a unified market within Europe, a central bank, and a single currency. Yet, another important step needed to follow: the removal of exchange rate fluctuations. After all, tomorrow’s exchange rate can throw a whole new light on today’s transaction.
This obstacle on the road to unity was removed by setting up the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) and introducing the euro as a common currency. Exchange costs have now disappeared, and businesses no longer have to protect themselves against exchange rate risks. The result is lower business expenses and more international trade. In turn, this may lead to more jobs and increased spending power—which would benefit everyone.
The founding of the European Central Bank in 1998 marked another important step toward adopting a single currency. This independent bank, located in the German city of Frankfurt, holds monetary sovereignty over the participating governments. It strives to keep inflation low in what is termed the euro zone, consisting of 11 participating countries,* and to stabilize exchange rate fluctuations between the euro, the dollar, and the yen.
So when it comes to money, great strides toward unity have been made. However, money matters also illustrate the profound disunity that still exists among European nations.
More Monetary Matters
The poorer nations in the EU have their grievances. They feel that the richer member nations are not sharing enough of their wealth with them. None of the member nations deny the need to offer the poorer European partners extra financial support. Yet, the richer nations feel that they have valid reasons for holding back.
Take Germany as an example. That country’s enthusiasm to act as paymaster for European unification has clearly waned now that its own financial burden has mounted. The price tag of unifying East Germany and West Germany alone has been enormous—almost a hundred billion dollars a year. That is a quarter of the national budget! These developments have caused the German national debt to skyrocket to such heights that Germany had to make great efforts to meet the admission criteria set by the EMU.
New Members Knocking on the EU Door
In the short term, advocates of a single currency hope that the EU countries not yet in the EMU will overcome their obstacles before the year 2002, when euro coins and notes are supposed to replace today’s European currencies. If Britain, Denmark, and Sweden shed their reluctance, even the people in those lands may see their pounds, kroner, and kronor replaced by the euro.
Meanwhile, six other European countries are knocking on the EU door. They are Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Poland, and Slovenia. Five more countries are awaiting their turn, namely, Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, and Slovakia. Their entrance will not come cheap. Estimates are , the EU will have to provide 80 billion euros to help the ten newcomers from Eastern Europe.
However, the funds that the newcomers will have to raise in order to meet EU entrance requirements are many times more than the amount they will receive in EU aid. For example, Hungary will have to spend 12 billion euros on developing its roads and railways. The Czech Republic will need to spend more than 3.4 billion euros on water treatment alone, and Poland must spend 3 billion euros to reduce sulfur emissions. Even so, the applicants feel that the benefits outweigh the costs. For one thing, their trade with EU countries will increase. Yet, the applicants may have to wait in line for a while. According to present public opinion, new member nations should be accepted only after the EU has straightened out its own financial matters.
Resentment, Nationalism, and Unemployment
Despite all the efforts that have been made toward greater unity, there is, both inside and outside Europe, concern over the developments on the Continent. There is also much uneasiness about how to deal with ethnic conflicts, such as those in the disintegrating Balkan region—first the war in Bosnia and then the conflict in Kosovo. EU member nations often disagree on how to handle such conflicts in Europe and beyond. Since the EU is not a federation of states and has no common foreign policy, national interests dominate all too often. Clearly, national interests are a huge obstacle to a ‘United States of Europe.’
Europe has yet another pressing problem—high unemployment. On an average, 10 percent of the labor force is unemployed. This means that more than 16 million people are out of work. In many countries young people, who form almost one quarter of EU population, have put forth great efforts to find jobs but without success. No wonder many people feel that fighting mass unemployment is Europe’s number one challenge! So far, efforts to reform the labor market have proved unfruitful.
However, there is a still greater roadblock to unity.
Who Is in Charge?
Sovereignty remains the biggest hurdle in achieving a united Europe. Member nations must agree to what extent they are willing to forgo national sovereignty. The aim of the EU is to establish a supranational form of rulership. If this is not realized, notes Le Monde, the introduction of the euro will be merely “a provisional victory.” Some member nations, though, find the idea of letting go of authority hard to accept. For example, the leader of one EU member nation stated that his country was “born to be a leader of nations, not a follower.”
Understandably, the smaller member nations fear that in the long run, the larger nations will call the shots and will refuse to accept decisions that could harm their own interests. Smaller nations wonder, for example, how it will be decided which countries will have the headquarters of the various EU agencies. This is an important decision because such agencies boost the job market in the host countries.
In the face of these daunting roadblocks to unity—economic disparity, war, unemployment, and nationalism—it might seem easy to feel disappointed on the subject of the unification of Europe. The fact is, though, that extraordinary progress has been made. How much more progress lies ahead is uncertain. The problems that beset those trying to unify Europe are, in the main, the same problems that beset all human governments.
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La Bambouseraie—A Dream Come True

ALMOST 150 years ago in the south of France, Eugène Mazel, an importer of Asian spices, set out to make what would become the largest bamboo nursery in the world, containing nearly 200 varieties of this fast-growing, versatile grass. Until 1855, Mazel’s ambition was blocked by a major obstacle: Bamboo did not grow in Europe.
Attempts to import the grass from Asia proved futile. While bamboo is quite sturdy in its own habitat (certain varieties can withstand temperatures as low as -11 degrees Fahrenheit [-24 degrees Celsius] and can grow at an altitude of up to 16,000 feet [5,000 m]), it was impossible to keep the roots alive during the long journey across continents. With the advent of faster ships, however, bamboo specimens were successfully imported to England in 1827 and, later, to France. Mazel’s dream was one step closer to reality!
Mazel’s next challenge was finding a suitable location for his nursery. In 1855 he purchased an 84-acre estate near Anduze, in the south of France, which benefited from the Mediterranean climate and was blessed with suitable soil. Extensive work was necessary to direct water from a nearby river. But Mazel’s painstaking efforts met with success.
Sadly, by 1890, Mazel was bankrupt and had to sell his precious garden. Happily, though, others carried on where he left off, so that now each year an estimated 350,000 people visit La Bambouseraie—Mazel’s dream come true.
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Help for Victims of Torture

“IT IS EASIER TO HEAL BROKEN BONES THAN TO HEAL A BROKEN SOUL.”—Dr. Inge Genefke.
A YOUNG man strolls down a peaceful street in a European city and pauses to look at some merchandise displayed in a shop window. Suddenly, his hands tremble. His knees shake. He clutches his neck as if he were going to choke. In the window, he has just seen the reflection of two uniformed policemen. The young man has broken no laws, and there is no reason for him to be afraid. Yet, the mere sight of men in uniform takes him back to a place thousands of miles away and to a time years ago when he was a victim of torture.
This could be the story of any one of millions of men, women, and even children. It could be the story of someone you know. The victim of cruel mistreatment may be a refugee or an immigrant who has moved into your neighborhood. His children may attend school with your children. You may know him as a quiet, calm, polite neighbor who generally keeps to himself. But outward appearances can be deceiving; they may conceal the inner turmoil that the victim feels as he grapples with memories of past physical and mental suffering. Any sight—or sound—may cause him to relive past horrors. One such victim explains: “Whenever I hear a baby cry, I think of people I heard crying in the prison. Whenever I hear a sweeping sound in the air, I remember the rod going up and down—the sound it made just before it hit me.”
Torture is not the sole domain of political extremists and terrorist groups. In a number of countries, it is also employed by military and police forces. Why? Torture can be a quick and efficient way to obtain information, to extract a confession, to obtain incriminating testimony, or to take revenge. According to Denmark’s Dr. Inge Genefke, a leading expert on torture, in some cases governments “have come to power and maintain their position through the practice of torture.” One victim put it this way: “They wanted to break me so that others could see what happens to you when you criticise the government.”
To many people the idea of inflicting torture on fellow humans is strictly reminiscent of the Dark Ages. After all, in 1948 the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states: “No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.” (Article 5) Some experts believe, however, that up to 35 percent of the world’s refugees have been tortured. Why is torture so widespread? How are victims affected, and what can be done to help them?
The Aftermath
Not surprisingly, many victims of torture flee their homeland to start a new life elsewhere. But while the locale may change, the suffering—both physical and psychological—continues. For example, the victim may experience feelings of guilt because of being unable to protect friends or relatives from mistreatment. He may also develop a profound mistrust of others, fearing that each person he meets could be an informer. “The torture victim is forever going to be a stranger,” says writer Carsten Jensen. “He has forever lost his trust in the world.”
The result is a mixture of physical and mental trauma that can baffle the victim and anyone who sets out to help him. The physical problems can sometimes be treated readily, but not so the psychological. “In the beginning we thought, ‘All right, we’ll put their bones together—then they can walk home,’” admits Dr. Genefke. “But we soon learned that it was the pain in their hearts that was eating them up.” Nevertheless, Dr. Genefke notes: “It has been a surprise to learn that it is possible to relieve and to help victims, even if many years have passed.”
In 1982, at Copenhagen’s National Hospital, Dr. Genefke along with other Danish physicians set up a small unit for treating refugees who were victims of torture. From these small beginnings grew a global network under the name International Rehabilitation Council for Torture Victims (IRCT). From its headquarters in Copenhagen, the council is directing relief work through more than 100 centers worldwide. Over the years, the council has learned much about treating victims of torture.
How to Give Support
It is often helpful for victims to talk about their experiences. “Some 20 years ago,” says a presentation sheet from the IRCT, “torture victims were often victims in a double sense. First by being exposed to the physical/psychological act of torture, and then second by not being able to talk about it.”
Granted, it is not pleasant to talk about a topic as dismal as torture. But if a sufferer wishes to confide in a friend and the friend refuses to listen, the sufferer could sink deeper into despair. Therefore, it is important for the victim to be assured that someone cares. Of course, no one should pry into the personal affairs of another. Ultimately, it is up to the victim to decide if, when, and in whom he or she wants to confide
Most experts recommend considering both the physical and the mental aspects of torture. For some victims, rehabilitation requires professional help. Approaches to treatment include exercises in breathing and in communication.* Feelings of shame are usually among the first to be addressed. One therapist told a woman who had been repeatedly raped and beaten: “The shame you feel is normal and understandable. But remember that it is not yours. The shame belongs to the people who did this to you.”
Concentration Camp Survivors
During World War II, millions of people suffered horrible indignities in Hitler’s concentration camps. 
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The Compound Heat Sheild of the saharan Silver Ant

       THE Saharan silver ant (Cataglyphis bombycina) is one of the most heat-tolerant land animals known. When the midday Saharan sun forces the ant's predators to seek shade, the ant makes brief forays from its burrow in search of food, which consists of other insects killed by the intense heat.
Consider: The silver ant's assets include a compound heat shield made up of a covering of special hairs on the top and sides of its body and a hairless underside. The hairs which give the ant a silvery sheen, are tiny tubes with a triangular cross section. Their two outward facing surfaces have microscopic corrugations that run the length of the the hair, while the inward-facing surface is smooth. This design serves two functions. First, i enables the hairs to reflect solar radiation in the visible and near-infrared ranges. Second, its helps the ant to dissipate body heat absorbed from the environment. Meanwhile, the ant's hairless underside reflects radiation that is in the mid- infrared range and emanated from the desert floor.

The Saharan silver ant's compound heat shield helps the insect to keep its body temperature below the maximum it can tolerate---128.5 degrees Fahrenheit(53.6*C). Inspired by that tiny creature, researchers are working to develop special coatings that enhance passive cooling-that is, cooling without the aid of fans or other devices.                                                      
                                     

Wednesday 12 April 2017

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A VISIT TO SPAIN

PRINCIPAL LANGUAGES:SPANISH,BASQUE,CATALAN,GALICIAN,AND VALENCIAN
POPULATION:46,439,00   CAPITAL:MADRID
CLIMATE: VARIES FROM HOT SUMMERS TO SURPRISINGLY COLD WINTERS


SPAIN is a land of diversity in both its landscape and its people.Much of Spain is clothed with wheat fields,grapevines,and olive trees.To the south,only some nine miles(14km) of water separates mainland Spain from the African continent.

 Many peoples-including the Phoenicians,the Greeks,and the Carthaginians- migrated to this southwest
corner of Europe.When the Romans arrived in the third century B.C.E.,they called their newly conquered territory Hispania. The land was subsequently occupied by Visigoths and moors,all of whom left their cultural legacy.

 In one recent year,more than 68 million people visited Spain,Most come for the sunshine,the golden beaches,and the country's artistic,historical,and architectural treasures.Spanish food also attracts many visitors. Typical fare includes seafood,cured hams,rich stews,salads,and vegetables cooked or seasoned with olive oil.Spanish omelets,paella,and tapas are renowned the world over.

 Spanish people are friendly and outgoing.Most profess to be Roman Catholic,but relatively few actually attend mass.In recent years people from Africa ,Asia,and Latin America have emigrated to Spain.Many of them enjoy discussing their religious beliefs and customs.